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The Fourier Analysis – Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)

Introduction

Essentially, signals are functions that can be classified into different categories. A signal can be either continuous or discrete, and it can be either periodic or non-periodic. In our ‘Analog to digital conversion’ series of articles, we have seen that it is always possible to apply a sample-and-hold circuit to an analog (continuous) signal v(t) and convert it to a new sampled (discrete) signal v[n], as shown in Figure 1 (c – d).

In this discrete signal, the amplitudes are preserved similarly to the original signal v(t), but they are defined in a number of time instances. The Sampling Theory states that the frequency of sampling (fs) should obey Nyquist’s rule. Then, the spectrum of the original signal can be preserved in the discrete signal spectra and therefore, the original continuous signal v(t) can be completely reconstructed again in the time domain from its frequency domain components.

Transforms are only different representations of the same information. The Fourier transform family allows a time domain signal to be converted into its equivalent representation in the frequency domain. Conversely, if the frequency response of a signal is known, the inverse Fourier transform allows the corresponding time domain signal to be determined.

We may categorize signals based on ‘Fourier Analysis’ methods in four categories, as shown in Figure 1 (a to d):

  • Continuous & Periodic: like sine waves, square waves, and any waveform that repeats itself in a regular pattern in time. The method of the Fourier transform that can be applied to these types of signals is called the Fourier Series.
  • Continuous & Non-periodic: These signals are not repetitional in a periodic pattern. The Fourier method for this type of signal is simply called the Fourier Transform.
  • Discrete & Non-periodic: These signals are only defined at discrete points (samples) and do not repeat themselves in a periodic fashion. This type of Fourier transform is called the Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (DTFT).
  • Discrete & Periodic: These are discrete signals that repeat themselves in a periodic fashion in time. This class of Fourier Transform is called the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT).
Figure 1: Illustration of the four types of signals (a to d) according to the Fourier Analysis

These four classes of real signals can be mathematically supposed to extend to positive and negative infinity in time. When we struggle with theoretical issues, we may use the first three members of the Fourier transform family (a to c). But, digital processing systems, like digital computers, can only work with information that is discrete and finite in length.

In reality, the only member of this family that is relevant to digital signal processing is the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT). This type of transform operates on sampled time-domain signals which are periodic, as shown in Figure 1 (d).

Sometimes signals of general formats cannot be described mathematically and they also might not have periodicity, like a human’s voice signal. For such signals, the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) is one possible numerical approach for approximately calculating their spectrum.

Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) Method

As shown in Figure 2, the discrete Fourier transform changes an N–sample input signal x[n] into an N-point output signal X[k]. Generally, the input and output of the DFT block can be 2 arrays of numbers that represent amplitudes. Figure 2 describes the DFT numerical method structure.

Figure 2: Illustration of the DFT operations between time and frequency domains

In the time domain, x[n] (lower case letter x) consists of 2 arrays of N samples as the real part (Re x[n]) and the imaginary part (Im x[n]). In the frequency domain, the DFT also produces X[k] (capital letter X) which contains two signals as the real part (Re X[k]) and the imaginary part (Im X[k]). ‘n’ is the index of samples in the time domain and ‘k’ is the index of frequency components.

Each of these signals is N points long and runs from 0 to N-1. The Forward DFT transforms from the time domain to the frequency domain, while the Inverse DFT transforms from the frequency domain to the time domain. Given the time domain signal x[n], the process of calculating the frequency domain spectrum X[n] by the forward DFT is called decomposition or analysis. If the frequency domain is known, the calculation of the time domain by the inverse DFT is called synthesis. Both synthesis and analysis can be represented in equation forms and computer algorithms.

Calculating The Complex Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)

In comparison of DFT to continuous Fourier Transform computation, instead of an integral from minus infinity to plus infinity, only a summation formula has to be solved and this can even be done purely numerically using digital signal processing (DSP) techniques.

The forward complex DFT, written in polar form, is given by Equation 1.

Equation 1: The forward complex DFT in polar form

The quantity x[n] represents the nth time sample, where ‘n’ also ranges from 0 to N – 1. In Equation 1, X[k] represents the DFT frequency output at the kth spectral point, where k ranges also from 0 to N–1. The quantity N represents the number of sample points in the DFT data record. The ‘j’ is the square root of (-1) and it is an imaginary unit denoted also by √-1.

Equation 1 is in polar form, the most common for DSP. Alternatively, Euler’s relation can be used to rewrite the forward transform in rectangular form in Equation 2.

Equation 2: The forward complex DFT in rectangular form

Thus, the two signals in the frequency domain which are called the real part and the imaginary part, represent the amplitudes of the cosine waves and sine waves, respectively. In spite of their names, all of the values in these arrays are just ordinary numbers. (The j’s are not included in the array values; they are a part of the mathematics of complex numbers).

However, there is scaling required to make the reconstructed signal be identical to the original signal. For the complex discrete Fourier transform, a normalization factor of 1/N must be introduced somewhere along the way.

The inverse complex DFT reconstructs the time domain signal. The inverse complex DFT, written in polar form, is given by Equation 3.

Equation 3: The inverse complex DFT

The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and the Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT) are obtained through the mathematical relations in Equations 1 and 3. These are the matching equations to transform the signals from one domain to another one.

Figure 3 shows a simple example of DFT with N = 8. First, the acquired samples of the input signal are arranged in Table 1, and then, DFT coefficients are calculated as complex numbers and collected in Table 1.

Table 1: An example of DFT calculation with N =8

Finally, all the data are plotted in Figure 3.  The time domain signal is a real signal (the imaginary part of the signal is zero) and it is contained in the array with data indexes of x[0] to x[7]. Notice that 8 points in the time domain corresponds to 8 points in each of the frequency domain signals, with the frequency indexes also running from 0 to 7.

Figure 3: Complex frequency spectrum resulted by DFT calculation with N =8



The horizontal axis of the frequency domain can be referred to in different ways. In the first method, the horizontal axis is labeled based on the spectral index (k) and corresponding to samples in the arrays. The value of k represents the position of the frequency component in the DFT output, with k = 0 corresponding to the DC component (0 Hz) and higher values of k corresponding to increasing frequencies. When this labeling is used, the index for the frequency domain is an integer from 0 to N-1. This notation is used in Figure 3.

In the second method, the horizontal axis is labeled as frequency in terms of Hertz. In this case, we need to know the sampling rate (fs) of the input signal. The index used with this notation is f, for frequency. To convert from the first notation, k, to the second notation, f, we can use Equation 4.

Equation 4: Calculation of the frequency of spectral components

Then by assuming fs = 1000 Hz in our example we can rewrite the results and plot them in Figure 4.

Also, for better understanding, it is possible to plot the results based on ‘Magnitude’ and ‘Phase angle’ instead of the real and imaginary parts in the frequency domain. For this reason, we can use Equation 5 to calculate the magnitude of the transformed coefficients which are in the complex form (z = a +jb).

Equation 5: Calculation of the magnitude of spectral components

It is also possible to use Equation 6 for finding the phase angle of transformed coefficients.

Equation 6: Calculation of the magnitude of spectral components

The results of the calculation are written in Table 2.

Table 2: The example of DFT calculation with N =8 in terms of magnitudes and phase angles

Figure 4 shows the complex frequency spectrum plot resulting from the DFT calculation in terms of the magnitude and the phase with (N =8) and (fs = 1000 Hz).

Figure 4: Complex frequency spectrum with N =8 in terms of the magnitude and the phase



Essentially, the DFT views these N points to be a single period of an infinitely long periodic signal. When we calculate the DFT of a periodic time-domain signal, as explained in Equation 7, the resulting DFT coefficients also exhibit periodicity, as explained in Equation 8. It means, the DFT coefficients repeat or oscillate every N coefficient.

Equation 7: Periodicity in the time domain
Equation 8: Periodicity in the frequency domain

However, in the real world, only a finite number of samples (N) are available for input into the DFT. This problem is overcome by placing an infinite number of groups of the same N samples “end-to-end”.  This means that the left side of the acquired signal is connected to the right side of a duplicate signal. Likewise, the right side of the acquired signal is connected to the left side of an identical period.

This technique constructs a periodic sequence by repeating the real N-sample sequence and forces mathematical (not real-world) periodicity. Figure 5 shows this periodicity in the time domain.

Figure 5: Periodicity of the DFT’s signal in the time domain

Periodicity in the frequency domain behaves in much the same way but is more complicated. The complex Fourier transform includes both positive and negative frequencies. Taking these negative frequencies into account, the DFT views the frequency domain as periodic.

The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) actually corresponds to a Fourier analysis within the window of observation (N samples) of the signal. It is thus assumed that the signal in the observed time window continues periodically. This assumption results in “uncertainties” in the analysis so that the Discrete Fourier Transform can only supply approximate information about the actual frequency band.

Advantages of DFT

The Discrete Fourier Transform is a fundamental mathematical tool used in various fields, including audio processing, image analysis, speech recognition, data compression, and many types of measuring equipment. It is widely employed for analyzing and manipulating signals in both the time and frequency domains.

In general, we need the Fourier transform if we need to look at the frequencies in a signal. Signals and waveforms in electronics and communication applications are expressed by using both time-domain and frequency-domain plots, but in many cases, the frequency-domain plot is more useful.

Fourier analysis allows us to determine not only the frequency components in any sophisticated signal to make its spectrum but also how much bandwidth the particular signal occupies. Although a sine or cosine wave at a single frequency theoretically occupies no bandwidth (with single-line spectrums), sophisticated signals obviously take up more spectrum space. For example, a 1-MHz square wave with harmonics up to the eleventh occupies a bandwidth of 11 MHz!

Real-time spectrum analyzers are indeed common applications of the DFT. These instruments use DSP processors that are programmed to perform DFT computations on incoming signals in real time. The DFT results are then used to display the frequency spectrum of the input signal in a graphical format, making them valuable tools for signal analysis and troubleshooting.

Summary

  • Signals can be categorized as continuous-time and discrete-time functions, in the forms of periodic or non-periodic.
  • By using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC), the signal is sampled at discrete points in the time domain and observed only within a limited time window at N points.
  • We start with a time domain signal and take the DFT to find the frequency domain signal. To reverse the process, we take the Inverse DFT of the frequency domain signal, reconstructing the original time domain signal.
  • Briefly, the complex DFT transforms two N point time domain signals into two N point frequency domain signals. The two time-domain signals are called the real part and the imaginary part, just similar to the frequency-domain signals.
  • Both the time domain samples, x[n], and the frequency domain data, X[k], are arrays of complex numbers, with k and n running from 0 to N-1.
  • The DFT views both the time domain and the frequency domain as periodic forms.
  • The DFT operates on a finite number (N) of digitized time samples, x[n]. When these samples are repeated and placed “End-to-End,” they appear periodic to the transform.
  • If working with a signal in the time domain is difficult, then using the Fourier transform to move it into the frequency domain is worth trying.

Variscite Releases First Wi-Fi 6-Enabled System-on-Module To Enhance Connectivity Performance

Posted on by mixos

NXP-based Wi-Fi 6 Module Delivers Extended Bandwidth, Improved Range, High-Throughput Simultaneous Streaming, Reduced Latency, and Optimized Power Management

Variscite, a leading worldwide System on Module (SoM) designer, developer and manufacturer, announced its support for Wi-Fi 6 today and has released the enhanced NXP i.MX93 based SoM with the NXP-based Wi-Fi 6 module.

Wi-Fi 6 provides numerous advantages over previous-generation Wi-Fi modules. These advantages include extended bandwidth, improved range, better simultaneous stream capabilities, lower latency, and optimized power management. The integration of NXP’s IW611/ IW612 Wi-Fi 6 modules offers certified and secure dual-band Wi-Fi 6 802.11ax/ac/a/b/g/n solution with BT/BLE 5.3 and optional 802.15.4 tri-radio that fully supports the new Matter™ standard to meet the next generation of IoT requirements.

The VAR-SOM-MX93 is Variscite’s first of several Wi-Fi 6-enabled releases in the company’s extensive product portfolio. This upgraded SoM is available to order, along with related evaluation kits, from Variscite’s online store. SoMs based on the NXP i.MX8 series will soon be upgraded to Wi-Fi 6, offering users the same enhanced connectivity features and performance.

Starting at only US $39, the SoM offers an energy flex architecture for efficient processing with integrated AI/ML NPU acceleration and targets markets like industrial, IoT, smart edge devices, and portable devices.

“It is our mission to deliver advanced SoM solutions that leverage the latest technology advances, such as Wi-Fi 6,” said Ofer Austerlitz, VP Business Development and Sales of Variscite. “With growing interest in IoT and portable wireless connections, we anticipate strong demand for upgraded connectivity in the industrial embedded systems market. With this advanced solution, unparalleled speed and efficiency are not just future expectations, but reality today.”

Variscite’s VAR-SOM-MX93 runs on 1.7GHz Dual Cortex™-A55 NXP’s iMX93 processor with 250MHz Cortex-M33 real-time processor and features the industry’s first implementation of the Arm® neural processing unit, Ethos™-U65 microNPU. The SoM provides built-in security features, 2x CAN bus, 2x GbE, industrial temperature range, camera inputs, audio in/out, ADC, 2x USB, certified Wi-Fi 6, BT/BLE 5.3, and display outputs.

The VAR-SOM-MX93 features Variscite’s VAR-SOM Pin2Pin product family, offering compatibility of one carrier board design to several SoMs. This extensive Pin2Pin family ensures extended longevity, as well as reduced development time, costs and risks.

AAEON Release COM-HPC Boards with Multiple SuperSpeed USB 20Gbps, 11 PCIe, and 12th/13th Gen Intel Core CPU Support

Posted on by mixos

Designed for high-performance applications, the HPC-ADSC and HPC-RPSC offer expandable connectivity to channel the latest Intel® technology.

AAEON, a leading designer and manufacturer of Computer-on-Modules, has released its first COM-HPC boards, the HPC-ADSC and HPC-RPSC, targeted towards high-performance applications.

Based on the Client Size C form factor (160mm x 120mm), the boards support up to 65W CPUs from both the 12th and 13th Generation Intel® Core™ Processor lines, offering a maximum of 24 cores and 32 threads with the Intel® R680E Chipset.

The boards offer flexible and expansive system memory and storage via two DDR5 SODIMM slots and an M.2 2280 M-Key slot for NVMe. Greater storage needs are accommodated via three PCIe 4.0 and eight PCIe 3.0 slots, which AAEON feel will make the boards suitable for the edge server market.

The HPC-ADSC and HPC-RPSC’s expansion slots are joined by two Intel® I226-LM ethernet ports running at 2.5GbE, which can be added to via its PCIe slots to incorporate multiple ethernet functions for use in applications requiring extensive connectivity, such as intelligent parking lot management systems and roadside units.

Additional interfaces include multiple USB 3.2 Gen 2×2 (20Gbps), USB 3.2 Gen 2 (10Gbps), and USB 2.0 (dependent on USB connector configuration), along with a 12-bit GPIO and 4-Wire UART.

A primary feature of the boards is their support for extremely powerful processors, which provide a strong foundation including Intel® UHD Graphics 770. This focus on strong performance is reflected in the boards’ accommodation of advanced graphics cards via a 16-lane PEG Gen 5 slot and its support for both Windows and Linux operating systems.

The HPC-ADSC and HPC-RPSC are now in mass production, with ordering and pricing information available via both the eShop and AAEON’s contact form.

For more information about the HPC-ADSC and HPC-RPSC, please visit our product page.

Top 10 Most Popular ICs in Today’s Electronics

Posted on by Debashis Das

ICs or Integrated Chips are the fundamental building blocks of all modern-day electronic devices. They’re made of lots of tiny parts like resistors, capacitors, and transistors printed into a small piece of material known as silicon. These chips are in almost everything electronic we use in our day-to-day lives – from our phones and smartwatches to even the projects people make at home for fun (DIY or hobby electronics). They’re also in big things like cars and rockets. These chips are necessary for many of our gadgets to work. In this article, we’ll explore the top 10 most widely used chips in the industry.

While we are at it we would like to point your attention to one of the biggest distributors of electronic components Win Source. Established in 1999 and boasting an inventory of over 1 million SKUs they are recognized as leaders in industrial distribution. Let’s explore some of the categories and examples from their vast collection:

Linear ICs

Linear Integrated Circuits, or analog ICs, work with a continuous range of values, which means they can have an infinite number of operating states. This makes them different from digital ICs, which have a set number of distinct input and output states. Analog ICs serve as the funda­mental building blocks for complex elect­ronic circuits and find applic­ations in various devices such as airpl­anes, space­ships, and radars. Designing linear ICs is more challenging, despite them having fewer transistors. Some of the most commonly used linear ICs are listed below.

TypePart NumberDescription
Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps)LM741
LM358
TL072 		General-purpose op-amp
Dual op-amp
Low-noise JFET dual op-amp
Voltage RegulatorsLM7805
LM7905
LM317		+5V positive voltage regulator
-5V negative voltage regulator
Adjustable positive voltage regulator
Voltage ComparatorsLM339
LM311		Quad voltage comparator
Precision voltage comparator
TimersNE555NTimer IC
Voltage ReferencesLM4041BEX3Micropower phase-locked loop
Phase Locked Loops (PLL)LM4041BEX3Phase Lock Loop IC
Audio AmplifiersTDA8560Q/N1
TPA6012A4PWPR
LM3886T/NOPB		55 W 2 Channel Audio Amplifier
3W Audio Amplifier
1-CH Mono 68W Class-AB Amp
Video ProcessorLMH0302SQX/NOPB
GS9092ACNE3
GS9092A GenLINX-R III 270Mb/s Serializer for
SDI and DVB-ASI
3-Gbps HD/SD SDI Cable Driver

Logical ICs

Logical ICs or as it is commonly referred to as Digital ICs are semiconductor devices that are designed to process basic logical operations (i.e., signals that have only two possible states: high/1/true or low/0/false). These ICs are the fundamental building blocks of digital systems such as compu­ters, mobile devices, and various other devices.

TypePart NumberDescription
Basic Logic GatesDM7486N
SN7404NSR
Fundamental logic gates for digital operations
Flip-Flops and Latches7474(D flip-flop)
7475(Latch) 		Used for data storage and state retention
Multiplexers/Demultiplexers74151 (8-to-1 MUX)
74138 (3-to-8 DEMUX)
Select one input for output or distribute one input to multiple outputs
Counters and Registers4017(decade counter)
74161 (4-bit counter)
Used for counting events or storing data
Encoders/Decoders74147 (line encoder)
7447 (segment decoder)
Convert multiple inputs to coded output or vice versa
Memory Devices6116 (2K x 8 SRAM)
27C512 (512K EPROM)
Stores data or program instructions
Microprocessors and MicrocontrollersAtmega328(8-bit Micro)
Atmega2560(8-bit Micro)
Generic Microcontroller used in Arduino UNO and MEGA

Embedded Processor and Controllers

A microprocessor acts as the brain of a system; it does arithmetic and logic operations, manages data flows, and communicates with other devices. A microcontroller does the same thing as a microprocessor. The difference is that a microcontroller has RAM, ROM, and EEPROM  embedded inside it, but that is not true for a microprocessor. You have to connect RAM and storage for it to operate externally.

Type Part Number
Description
MicroprocessorMCIMX515DJM8C
MCIMX6S6AVM08ACR
GET52RGBB12GVE
DF8064101055647		SOC i.MX51 ARM Cortex A8 0.06um,
IC MPU I.MX6S 800MHZ 624MAPBGA,
MPU AMD G-Series RISC 64bit 1.5GHz,
Atom D2700 (2.13GHz FCBGA559)
MicrocontrollersS912XEP100J5MALR
STM8L152C6T6TR
HD6417750RX240V
AT89C51ED2-RLTUM
PIC24FJ256GA108T
Atmega328P		IC MCU 16BIT 1MB FLASH,
IC MCU 8BIT 32KB FLASH ,
IC MCU 32BIT ROMLESS,
IC MCU 8BIT 64KB FLASH,
IC MCU 16BIT 256KB FLASH,
8-bit Microcontroller with 4/8/16/32K Bytes In-System Programmable Flash

Memory Circuits

Memory ICs are special chips, which are made from millions of transistors, designed to store data or they can be used to hold code. They can retain information temporarily, as seen in RAM or SRAM, or permanently, like in ROM.

TypePart NumberDescription
EEPROM24LC256
CAV25256VE
25AA512
EEPROM Serial-2Wire 256K-bit
IC EEPROM 256KBIT SPI 8SOIC
IC EEPROM 512KBIT 20MHZ 8SOIC
FlashW25Q256JVFIQ
AT25DF041A-SSH-T
S29GL01GP13FAIV10		IC FLASH 256M SPI 133MHZ 16SOIC
IC FLASH 4MBIT 70MHZ 8SOIC
IC FLASH 1GBIT 110NS 56TSOP
RAMCY7C026AV-25AI
CY14B101Q2-LHXIT
FM28V100-TGTR		3.3V 4K/8K/16K x 16/18 Dual-Port Static RAM
IC NVSRAM 1MBIT SPI 40MH
FRAM 1Mbit Parallel Interface 3.3V
SRAMSTK14C88-3NF35ITR
STK14C88-3NF35I
K6X4016T3F-TF70		IC NVSRAM 256KBIT 35NS 32SOIC
NVRAM NVSRAM Parallel 256Kbit 3.3V
256Kx16 bit Low Power and Low Voltage CMOS Static RAM
PSRAMIS66WVE4M16EBLL
MT38W2021A902ZQXZI.X69
IS66WVE1M16EBLL-70BLI		IC PSRAM 64MBIT PARALLEL,
MCP 64Mb NOR + PSRAM 32Mb
IC PSRAM 16MBIT PARALLEL
DDRH26M78208CMR
MT41K512M16HA-125
KMR31000BM-B611		GDDR6 14Gb/s
DDR3-1600 512Mx16 (8Gb)
eMCP 16GB eMMC + 3GB(24Gb) LPDDR3
EMMCKE4CN5B6A
H26M78208CMR
SDIN5C2-8G-L		32GB eMMC
64GB eMMC5.1
8GB eMMC

Digital signal processors

Digital Signal Processors (DSP) are ICs that can process various real-world signals such as voice, audio, video, temperature, pressure, and position. Once these signals are converted into digital form, DSPs can quickly and efficiently perform mathematical operations like adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. DSPs play a crucial role in refining and interpreting digital information from our surroundings.

TypePart NumberDescription
DSPEV-SC594-SOM
ADZS-21369-EZLITE
EV-21569-SOM
TMDSLCDK6748		ADSP-SC594 SYSTEM ON MODULE EVAL
EZ-KIT LITE ADSP-21369 EVAL BRD
ADSP-21569 SYSTEM ON MODULE EVAL
TMS320C6748 EVAL BRD / TMS320C6748

Radio-frequency ICs

RFIC is an abbreviation of radio-frequency integrated circuits. Applications for RFICs include radar and communications, although the term RFIC might be applied to any electrical integrated circuit operating in a frequency range suitable for wireless transmission.

TypePart NumberDescription
RF FiltersDEA162450BT-1289A3
DEA250207BT-1256A2		RF FILTER BAND PASS
RF FILTER LOW PASS
RF AmplifiersHMC388LP4ETR
BGA612E6327HTSA1
BGA612 E6327
IC AMP VSAT 3.15GHZ-3.4GHZ 24QFN / RF Amplifier
IC AMP MMIC 80MA
RF Amp Single MMIC Amp 6GHz

Application-specific ICs or ASICs

Application-specific integrated Circuits (ASICs) are ICs designed for a specific purpose or task rather than for general use. They are custom-made to perform a particular device or system function.

For example, a chip designed solely to run a digital watch is an ASIC. Similarly, the chips in your smartphone that manage battery consumption or process camera images are ASICs.

TypePart NumberDescription
ASIC ICsAD654JNZ
RP2040		IC V-F CONVERTER MONO
Raspberry Pi Drivers

PMICs (Power Management ICs)

PMIC stands for Power Management Integrated Circuit. These are specialized ICs designed to manage and control the power in electronic devices. They handle power distribution, voltage scaling, battery charging, and power source selection tasks.

TypePart NumberDescription
Offline SwitchersTOP247YN
LNK306GN
UC3842BVD1G		IC OFFLINE SWIT UVLO HV
AC to DC Switching Converter
High-Performance Current Mode Controllers
Battery Management ICsS-8253AAA-T8T1GZ
MC33771CTP1AE
S-8261AAXMD-G2XT2U		C LI-ION BATT PROTECT
BATTERY CELL CONTROLLER
IC BATT PROTECTION
Display DriversPCF85162T/1Y
MAX7219EWG+T
PCF8578HT		32 X 4 UNIVERSAL LCD DRIVER
IC DRVR DSPLY LED
LCD row/column driver for dot matrix graphic displays

Optoelectronics ICs

Optoelectronic ICs combine electronic devices and optical processes within a single chip. This IC can be used in many applications like SMPS, Linear Feedback Systems, and more. Some of the most common types of optoelectronic ICs are listed below,

TypePart NumberDescription
OptocouplersPC817X1J000F
MCT2E		DIP 4pin General Purpose Photocoupler
OPTOISO 7.5KV TRANS W/BASE 6DIP

Sensors, Transducers ICs

Sensors and Transducers are one of the most important ICs that you can have as an electronic engineer. They can detect different types of signals and generate a response accordingly to that received signal. Some of the most common sensors are Temperature and Humidity Sensors, Blood Pressure Sensors, Pulse Oximeter Sensors, and many more.

TypePart NumberDescription
SensorsLIS331HH
L18P040D15
TCS34717FN
ZMOD4510AI1R		Triple Axis Accelerometer
40A AC/DC Hall Effect Sensor
Colour Sensor
Gas Sensor

MangoPi to Release First RISC-V Router with Dual GbE Support

Posted on by Debashis Das

In an attempt to revolutionize the router industry, MangoPi launches one of its first RISC-V-based Router Boards with ArtInChip D213ECV 64-bit RISC-V processor, 28 MB DDR3 RAM, 256MB SPI NAND flash. Prices at US $39.14, this little 5 x 5cm device could be a game changer.

Measuring just 5 x 5cm (about 2″ x 2″), this Tiny RISC-V Router Board Features the ArtInChip D213ECV 64-bit RISC-V processor, 128MB DDR3 RAM clocked at 672 MHz. Besides that, it supports two Gigabit Ethernet ports, two USB 2.0 ports, GPIO Header, and many more.

In terms of software support, MangoPi says that they are working on working on getting OpenWrt up and running with the board. But with the specs onboard, running other Linux distros onto it is possible.

As Jean-Luc at CNX Software mentions, there was a time when MIPS processors dominated the market. But in recent years, ARM-based RISC-V processors have taken over the space. This could very well be the beginning of a new era, but it’s very early to tell.

Features of OrangePi’s RISC-V Router Board

  • SoC: ArtInChip D213ECV 64-bit RISC-V (RV64IMAFDC) processor
  • Memory: 128MB DDR3 (16-bit, 672 MHz SiP)
  • Storage:
    • 256MB SPI NAND flash (Winbond 25N02KVZEIR)
    • MicroSD card slot (underneath)
  • Networking: 2 Gigabit Ethernet (Realtek RTL8211F)
  • Display: FPC for MIPI DSI & touch
  • USB: 2 USB 2.0 ports
  • Serial Interfaces:
    • 2 CAN 2.0
    • RS485 (2-pin, MAX13487EESA)
  • Debugging: 3-pin UART console
  • Expansion: 22-pin (GPIO, UART, SPI, ADC, power pins)
  • Misc: Reset & Boot buttons; LEDs (Power, System, WAN, LAN)
  • Power: 5V (USB Type-C)
  • Size: 5 x 5cm

At the time of writing this article, MangoPi didn’t officially reveal the pricing for this product, but as every other Chinese product goes, you can find the product listed on AliExpress selling for US$39.14.

LILYGO Introduces a new T-Display S3 Pro with Phone OTG Capabilities

Posted on by Emmanuel Odunlade

In recent times It was unveiled a number of ESP32 series boards with TFT or E-Ink displays especially from a company like LILYGO who as of last year, introduced the ESP32-S3 WiFi and Bluetooth LE T-Display S3 IoT development board with 1.9-inch color LCD, and made another new entry this year with the one with an AMOLED display, a high resolution, more colors, and a wider viewing angle.

The company has yet again gone a step further and added to the collection of IoT development boards, one of the finest so far, dedicated to serving portable applications that require multi-touch display support. The new T-Display S3 Pro is pretty much like the T-Display S3 that was released some time ago, having the same ABC casing, the same ESP32-S3R8 microprocessor, SPI interface, and WiFi and Bluetooth network connectivity. The T-Display Pro however comes with a larger screen size, a default built-in 400mA battery, support for an expandable camera module, and a chip that provides multi-touch display support and OTG capabilities. It also integrates ambient light, a range of sensors, an expandable camera module, and optional IMU support for projects that require motion tracking and orientation sensing.

LILYGO is well known for designing reliable programmable Internet of Things (PIoT) products that have been able to satisfy the rising needs of its users. This new T-Display S3 Pro development board should not be anything different.

Features and Specifications of T-Display S3 Pro IoT Development board Include:

  • ESP32-S3R8 Dual-core Xtensa LX7 microprocessor @ up to 240 MHz
  • 8MB PSRAM
  • 16MB Flash
  • 1x MicroSD card socket
  • 2.33-inch TOuch IPS TFT LCD
  • WiFi 802.11, BLE 5+ BT mesh
  • 2.33-inch Touch Display with 222 x 480 resolution; SPI interface
  • Digital light sensor and proximity sensor
  • USB Type-C port, USB OTG support
  • 1x LTR-553ALS-01 digital light sensor
  • 2x integrated QWIIC ports
  • Optional MPU9250 IMU module available internally
  • Reset and Boot buttons (1x each)
  • 1x User button
  • Onboard battery model: 3.8V [email protected]
  • Size: 32mm x 18mm x 72mm
  • Arduino-IDE and Micropython programming platforms.

Pricing and Availability

The T-Display S3 Pro is currently selling for $37.22 and is expected to start shipping by mid-October this year. LILYGO also gave hints about a $46 camera variant of the board that should be available soon. The company also directed us to the GitHub repository for sample codes and technical support, but the page doesn’t seem to be available now. Other useful details on the IoT development board, as well as some of their other new arrivals that may interest you, can be found on their online store.

Orange Pi Zero 2W – a new Raspberry Pi Zero 2W alternative with various RAM options

Posted on by Emmanuel Odunlade

Orange Pi recently introduced a new Raspberry PI Zero 2W alternative powered by a high-performance Allwinner H618 4-core processor with up to 4GB of RAM memory. The new Orange Pi Zero 2W is certainly not the first RPI Zero 2W alternative to be released, but it is sure one board that offers great capabilities and delivery.

The cost-effective Orange Pi Zero 2W has a similar form factor as the RPI Zero 2W. It also comes with similar interfaces such as a mini HDMI port with support for 4Kp60 resolution, 2x USB Type-C ports, 5x UART, 1x I2C, 1x SPI, and 4x PWM. One major difference between the two, however, is that the Orange Pi Zero 2W comes with a slightly more powerful processor and a variety of RAM options for users to choose from (1GB, 1.5GB, 2GB, 4GB)

The Orange Pi board comes with a compatible expansion board that further enriches its functional interfaces as well as enhances the development potential for users. The expansion board adds a 3.5mm audio jack, 10/100Mbps (RJ45) Ethernet port, two USB 2.0 ports, one IR receiver, one power and two user buttons.

Additionally, with the board’s support for 2.4G/5G dual-band WiFi 5 plus BT 5.0 with Bluetooth LE, you are sure to enjoy seamless network connectivity anytime and anywhere. The board can be used in various applications including TV boxes, smart screencasting devices, smart gateway, smart home, and IoT.

Features and Specifications Include

  • Allwinner H618 4-core Cortex A53 processor @ 1.5GHz and Mali G31 MP2 GPU supporting OpenGL ES 1.0/2.0/3.2, OpenCL 2.0, Vulkan 1.1
  • 1GB or 1.5GB or 2GB or 4GB LPDDR4 memory options
  • 16MB SPI flash
  • 1x microSD card socket
  • WiFi 5, BT 5.0 with BLE support
  • 100Mbps (RJ45) Ethernet port
  • 3.5mm audio jack
  • Micro HDMI 2.0 up to 4Kp60
  • Digital audio output via HDMI
  • 2x Type-C USB 2.0, 2x USB 2.0
  • 40-pin expansion header offering compatibility with GPIOs, 5x UART, I2C, SPI, 4x PWM, etc
  • IR receiver, power, and user buttons
  • Power: Type-C 5V/2A, AXP313a PMU
  • Dimension: 30mm x 65mm x 1.2mm
  • Weight: 12.5 grams
  • Operating System: Android 12 TV, Debian 12, Ubuntu 22.04, Orange Pi OS

Pricing and Availability

All four RAM variants of the boards are currently selling for $12.90, $15.90, $18.9 and $23.9 respectively for the 1GB, 1.5GB, 2GB, 4GB variants. However, these prices are only obtainable if you choose to buy them from AliExpress. Amazon sells each for about $3 higher. The expansion board also goes for $4.9.

More useful information on the Orange Pi Zero 2W can be found here.

DEBIX Model C – A Raspberry Pi-Like SBC for Industrial and IoT Applicationsy Pi-Like SBC for Industrial and IoT Applications

Posted on by Debashis Das

The DEBIX Model C is a Raspberry Pi-like compute module with NXP i.MX93 processor, Ethos-U65 microNPU, and has support for various other peripherals like dual ethernet, camera, and more.

DEBIX, a brand launched by OKdo Technology and Polyhex Technology, has recently announced a new single-board computer(SBC), the DEBIX Model C. Inspired by the Raspberry Pi compute module, this board comes with the NXP i.MX9352 system-on-chip (SoC). The processor includes two application-class processors and a low-power neural processing unit (NPU) named “microNPU“. The microNPU acts as a tinyML accelerator, enhancing the device’s machine-learning capabilities.

When it comes to processing power, this compute module houses i.MX9352 has a Dual-core Cortex-A55 (up to 1.7GHz) and a Single-core Cortex-M33 (up to 250MHz). In terms of RAM, this SBC is equipped with 1GB of LPDDR4 memory. You also have the option to upgrade RAM to 2GB. Additionally, the basic version of the SBC comes with 8GB of storage, but it can be expanded up to a full 128GB.

The Debix Mode C also features Dual Gigabit Network interfaces. It also supports Time-Sensitive Networking (TSN) and Power-over-Ethernet (PoE, requires PoE module).

The Debux module has two USB-C ports, one for power, and the other one can be used as OTG. Besides that, this board has a 3.5mm audio jack with microphone input, MIPI DSI and CSI interfaces supporting 1080p60 resolution, an LVDS output supporting 720p60, and a microSD slot for storage. The board runs on a 5V 2A power supply and can keep Power-over-Ethernet (PoE) with an extension board.

DEBIX Model C Features and Specifications:

  • Memory/Storage: Up to 2GB LPDDR4, Up to 128GB eMMC (optional), 1x MicroSD card slot.
  • Connectivity: 2.4GHz WIFI IEEE 802.11b/g/n, BT5.0, 2x GbE ports (1x w/ TSN support).
  • Camera: 1x MIPI CSI (up to 1080p60).
  • Display/Audio: 1x MIPI DSI (up to 1080p60), 1x LVDS (up to 720p60), 1x Headphone & mic combo.
  • I/O Interfaces: 40-Pin expansion header.
  • USB: 2x USB 2.0 Host Type-A, 1x USB 2.0 OTG Type-C.
  • Power: DC 5V/2A Type-C.
  • OS: Yocto 4.2-L6.1.22_2.0.0.
  • Operating Temperature: -20℃ to 70℃, -40℃ to 85℃ (optional).
  • Mechanical: 85.0 x 56.0mm.

Although specific pricing details for the DEBIX Model C SBC have not been released, it is expected to be available in September 2023. Meanwhile, the Model B and Debix SoM A are currently available for purchase on OKDO.

New AML-S905X-CC-V2 Compliments Older Le Potato Models but Targets Commercial and Consumer Applications 

Posted on by Emmanuel Odunlade

We are very pleased to announce that Libre Computer, has just released a new model of its Le Potato SBC, targeted at unique commercial and consumer application needs. This new addition to the range of open-source Raspberry Pi alternatives named AML-S905X-CC-V2 comes with 4K media playback and claims GPIO compatibility with the Raspberry Pi.

The new “Sweet Potato” board, as it is also called, is based on an Amlogic S905X SoC – a 4-core Arm Cortex-A53 processor clocked at up to 1.5GHz with 2G + 3P ARM Mali-450 GPU. It is also equipped with a 5-pin USB header which provides a direct interface for UVC cameras.

This new Sweet Potato has predecessors such as the AML-S905X-CC “Le Potato” board. One thing that differentiates it from them is that it comes with a DDR4 memory and a 16MB SPI boot ROM with a Boot Select Switch; an upgrade to the DDR3 in others. Another difference is that it offers 5V/3A Type-C power-in, compared to the 5V/2.5A microUSB that the others give. PoE support is another feature that helps to bring one-wire networking and power to your projects. The company claims that Sweet Potato pulls around 1W while idle. It also comes with a 5-pin USB header and an eMMC 5. X Slim module with the mounting standoff.

There is no CVBS/Stereo Analog Jack in it though but it still comes with a usual 40 pin GPIO header making it retain its compatibility with a number of HATs. Other similarities include the same Raspberry Pi 3B+ form factor, 4x USB Type-A ports, HDMI 2.0a, IR sensor, and the same Amlogic S905X SoC. It is also compatible with a $20 PoE HAT with PWM fan controller.

Features and Specifications

  • Amlogic S905X SoC
    • 4-core Arm Cortex-A53 processor clocked at up to 1.5GHz
    • 2G + 3P ARM Mali-450 GPU with support for OpenGL ES 1.1 / 2.0, OpenVG 1.1
  • 2GB DDR4 RAM size
  • 1x microSD Card slot
  • 16MB SPI boot ROM
  • eMMC 5.X module
  • 40-pin RPI-compatible GPIO
  • USB header, PoE header, 8-pin audio header
  • UART debug header, IR sensor
  • Fast Ethernet
  • HDMI 2.0
  • 4x USB 2.0
  • 5V/3A USB Type-C Power Input

If you want to enjoy the discounted price of $30 that the Sweet Potato is being sold for now, you can visit here and grab the offer while it lasts as the price might likely go up to its default price of $35 anytime soon.

Other valuable details can be found on the product announcement page.

Asus Tinker Board 3N: A powerful SBC for industrial and commercial use

Posted on by Debashis Das

Based on a Rockchip RK3568 SOC, The Tinker Board 3N is a versatile SBC with dual LAN, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth. Designed for IoT applications, this board can be used for IoT gateways, digital signage, digital kiosks, and other commercial applications.

The Tinker Board lineup was launched by Asus back in 2017, with all models featuring a form factor similar to the Raspberry Pi. But the latest Tinker Board 3N series sports a larger 100 x 100mm (4 x 4in) footprint described by Asus as NUC-sized.

Like the previous models, this board is also based on a 64-bit Rockchip RK3568 SOC, which features a quad-core Cortex-A55 CPU cluster plus a Mali-G52 GPU. Regarding memory, this SBC comes with 2GB, 4GB, or 8GB of LPDDR4 or LPDDR4X memory. It has support for 32 or 64 GB storage.

The Tinker Board features a Raspberry PI like pin header that supports the CAN Bus, COM port, and RTC and there is also a Fan header and a DC power input jack in the board.

According to Asus, the board will come in three different variants, Tinker Board 3N, 3N Lite, and 3N Plus, but Asus hasn’t given us the precise specs or pricing for each model yet.

The board will be shipped with a Wireless card that supports Wi-Fi 5 and Bluetooth 5 Technology. But many people want the newer Wi-Fi 6, so if the board ships with a Wi-Fi 6 card, that would have been a great addition.

Asus has indicated that the Tinker Board 3N is compatible with Android 12 and Debian 11. However, the board may also support other GNU/Linux distributions.

Asus Tinker Board 3N Features:

  • Memory/Storage: Up to 8GB Dual-CH LPDDR4/LPDDR4X, Up to 64GB eMMC, 1x MicroSD card slot, SPI Flash 16MB.
  • Connectivity: 2x RJ45 ports, 1x SIM Slot, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth
  • Display: 1x HDMI w/ CEC hardware ready, 1x LVDS (Dual-link), 1x eDP.
  • Audio: 1x 3.5 Phone Jack (w/ Mic), 1x Speaker Stereo Pin Header (4Ω/3W each), 1x HDMI audio.
  • M.2 2230 E-Key: 1 x for WiFi 5 or 6 + Bluetooth (PCIe 2.0 x1, USB 2.0)
  • M.2 3042/3052 B-Key: 1 x for 4G, 5G, or SSD (PCIe 3.0 x1, USB 3.0, USB 2.0, SIM)
  • USB: 1x USB 3.2 Gen1 Type-C OTG port, 2x USB 3.2 Gen1 Type-A ports, 2x USB 2.0 Pin header.
  • I/O Peripherals: CAN Bus 2.0B FD (via 1-pin header), COM 232 w/ flow control (via 2-pin header), COM 232/422/485 (via 1-pin header), 12-pin GPIO expansion header.
  • Other Features: 1x IR Receiver header, 1x 2-pin Recovery header, 1x 4-pin Power-on & Reset header, 1x 3-pin Debug UART header, 1x 4-pin DC Fan header, 1x 2-pin RTC Battery header.
  • Power: 1x DC Barrel power input jack, 1x 4-Pin Power in header (for PoE module).
  • Operating Temperature: -40℃ to 85℃.
  • Mechanical: 100 x 100mm

At the time of writing this news post, the price of the Tinker Board 3N was not disclosed. We looked around a few Asus Resellers to find some information on the topic, but we have not seen any. But looking at the specs and previous price history, the board’s price may well be within $200.

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